Glucagon

Overview

Glucagon is an endogenous peptide hormone central to glucose regulation. The hormone, glucagon-containing medicines, and drugs that target glucagon or GLP-1 pathways answer different biological and clinical questions.

Evidence quality

WPF’s broad Glucagon atlas includes glucose-homeostasis research, stimulation-test studies, and many records about related incretin drugs. The screening inventory is not a curated list of direct evidence about every use of glucagon, and adjacent GLP-1 literature should not be attributed to glucagon itself.

Safety concerns

This Directory entry has no published source-linked citations or jurisdiction-specific regulatory records. A mechanism statement must not be converted into an efficacy claim for a particular product, formulation, route, or clinical scenario.

Citations as of this version

• Effects of Pharmacological GIP Infusion on Insulin, Glucagon, and Cardiovascular Responses During Hyperglycemia in Type 2 Diabetes. (2026)
• Twelve weeks of voluntary wheel running restores glucagon sensitivity in middle-aged mice. (2026)
• SEL1L-HRD1 ER-associated degradation facilitates prohormone convertase 2 maturation and glucagon production in islet α cells. (2026)
• Association between sleep disorders and alterations in glucose metabolism, insulin, and glucagon in patients with type 2 diabetes. (2026)
• TRPM7 kinase regulates α-cell proliferation and glucagon production in mice. (2026)
• Somatostatin receptors shape insulin and glucagon output within the pancreatic islet in mice through direct and paracrine effects. (2026)
• Effect of somatostatin receptor 2 antagonism on glucagon counterregulation during a hyperinsulinaemic euglycaemic-hypoglycaemic glucose clamp in adult men and women with long-standing type 1 diabetes: a randomised crossover phase 1 study. (2026)
• A simple mechanistic model for insulin-glucose-glucagon dynamics and its implications for diabetes management. (2026)
• Antecedent hypoglycaemia impairs glucagon secretion by enhancing somatostatin-mediated negative feedback control. (2026)
• Paracrine inhibition via G protein inwardly rectifying potassium channels regulates glucagon secretion from human pancreatic alpha cells. (2026)
• Early glucagon-positive cells restrict pancreatic branching through VMAT2-noradrenaline-mediated ROS signaling. (2026)
• Early loss and progressive deterioration of glucagon responses to hypoglycemia in children with type 1 diabetes. (2026)
• Associations of Fasting Glucagon and the Glucagon-Alanine Index With Hepatic Steatosis and Liver Stiffness in Japanese Individuals With Type 2 Diabetes. (2026)
• Increased Early Postprandial Glucagon Concentrations in Humans With Newly Diagnosed Type 2 Diabetes and Steatotic Liver Disease. (2026)
• Distinctive patterns of glucagon and incretin responses to oral and isoglycaemic intravenous glucose load in fibrocalculous pancreatic diabetes. (2026)
• Dose-Response Effect of Glucagon on Glucose, Beta-Cell Secretion and Metabolism in Healthy Individuals. (2026)
• Conformational determinants of glucagon stability and aggregation kinetics in aqueous and commercial formulations. (2026)
• Uncoupling Insulin Sensitivity From Longevity: A Sex-Dependent Effect of Hepatic Glucagon Signaling. (2026)
• Loss of Slc39a5 in α-cells impairs glucose metabolism by chronically increasing glucagon. (2026)
• Amino Acid Sensing by the α-Cell Mitochondrial Phosphoenolpyruvate Cycle Regulates Intracellular Ca2+ Levels Without Affecting Glucagon Secretion. (2026)
• Glucagon receptor deficiency is associated with glucocorticoid receptor activation and proteolytic remodeling in gastrocnemius of male mice. (2026)
• Glucagon may be extracted across the liver by a glucagon receptor-dependent mechanism, and this is impaired in an animal model of fatty liver disease. (2026)
• Glucagon promotes net hepatic glycogen repletion following meal ingestion. (2026)
• Glucagon secretion by pancreatic alpha-cells requires an intact tubulin-cytoskeleton-primary cilium axis. (2026)
• Glucagon receptor blockade protects spermatogenesis by enhancing PFKFB3-mediated lactate production in Sertoli cells. (2026)
• Glucagon-stimulated copeptin response in children: a proof-of-concept study. (2026)
• Somatostatin Receptor PET/CT in a Glucagonoma Presenting With Necrolytic Migratory Erythema and Normoglucagonemia: A Diagnostic Dilemma. (2026)
• Whey Protein Ingestion Stimulates Glucagon Secretion and Raises Blood Glucose Levels in Adults With Type 1 Diabetes. (2026)
• Experimental chronic fetal hyperglucagonemia stimulates hepatic pathways for amino acid catabolism and gluconeogenesis. (2026)
• Unequal distribution of plasma glucagon levels among clustering-based diabetes subtypes: a Japanese cohort. (2026)
• The expanding landscape of the glucagon signaling network: mechanisms and outcomes. (2026)
• One Week Exposure to a Somatostatin Receptor 2 Antagonist (SSTR2a) Enhances Glucagon Counterregulation to Insulin-Induced Hypoglycaemia and Does Not Worsen Glycemia in a Male Rat Model of Insulin-Requiring Type 2 Diabetes. (2026)
• Glucagon and beta-cell function changes before and after dietary weight loss-induced metabolic improvements in type 2 diabetes. (2026)
• Postprandial Glucagon Action in the Human Brain. (2026)
• Pancreatic α-cell sodium-glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1) does not appear to contribute to hyperglucagonemia and glucose intolerance in diabetic mice. (2026)
• The ApoA-IV-LRP1 Signaling Axis: A Novel Insulin-Independent Pathway for the Suppression of Diabetic Hyperglucagonemia. (2026)
• Sodium-glucose cotransporter-specific substrate αMG stimulates endogenous glucagon secretion and ameliorates obesity-associated metabolic disorders in mice. (2026)
• Liver fibrosis and type 2 diabetes modulate postprandial incretin and glucagon responses in fatty liver disease. (2026)
• Chronic Glycaemic Control Modulates the Relationship Between GIP and Glucagon Secretion Following Oral and Enteral Nutrients in Type 2 Diabetes. (2026)
• Differential Longitudinal Effects of Glucose-Lowering Medications on Glucagon and C-peptide Responses in the Glycemia Reduction Approaches in Diabetes: A Comparative Effectiveness Study (GRADE). (2026)
• The Glucagonotropic Effect of GIP Is Negated During Insulin-Induced Hypoglycemia in Type 1 Diabetes: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover Study. (2026)
• The Glucagonocentric Basis of Diabetic Cardiomyopathy: Pancreas-Heart Crosstalk Linking α-Cell Dysregulation to Cardiac Metabolic Stress and Fibrosis. (2026)
• Identification of insulin and glucagon genes in the finless porpoise and the developmental distribution of their producing endocrine cells. (2026)
• A Prospective Evaluation of Glucagon Stimulation Test Safety in Adults With Chronic Moderate-to-Severe Traumatic Brain Injury. (2026)
• Lower glucagon response and attenuated hepatic glucagon signaling in MASLD. (2026)
• Acute glucagon infusion induces natriuresis and diuresis through a direct tubular mechanism involving overlapping receptor pathways. (2026)
• Altered Glucagon Response to Oral Glucose in Individuals at Different Stages of Type 1 Diabetes Development. (2026)
• Morning glucagon disrupts insulin induced hepatic metabolic memory and subsequent afternoon glucose metabolism in canines. (2026)
• α-cell SLC38A5 supports amino acid-induced α-cell proliferation and glucagon secretion. (2026)
• Integrated Experimental and Molecular Modeling Techniques to Investigate the Buffer Effects on Glucagon Stability. (2026)
• EXPRESS: Comparing the Efficacy of Transmucosal and Subcutaneous Glucagon Administration in Response to Insulin-Induced Hypoglycemia in Healthy Cats. (2026)
• Additive Glucagonotropic and Insulinotropic Effects of Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide and Alanine in Fasted Healthy Men. (2026)
• Specific Glucagon Assay System Using a Receptor-Derived Glucagon-Binding Peptide Probe. (2026)
• Glucagon receptor signaling is indispensable for the healthspan effects of caloric restriction in aging male mice. (2026)
• Improved Glucagon Sensitivity Following Weight Loss: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. (2026)
• A non-enzymatic function of neuraminidase 1 restrains hepatic glucagon response in mice. (2026)
• Targeting glucagon signaling in metabolic disorders, functional insights from zebrafish receptor knockouts. (2026)
• Glucagon and insulin prescribing trends and cost implications in Japan: a 10-year analysis using the National Database Open Data Japan. (2026)
• Role of glucagon in metabolic diseases. (2026)
• Alpha-cell glucagon is essential for maintaining β-cell function and identity in adult mice. (2026)
• Integrated glucagon model for estimation of α-cell responsivity to glucose and amino acids during graded glucose infusion. (2026)
• Hepatic steatosis in humans is associated with preserved glucagon action on amino acid metabolism. (2026)
• Intravenous Glucagon Infusion in the Management of Hypoglycemia in Infants of Diabetic Mothers. (2026)
• Mitochondrial NCLX couples glucagon- and PDE2A-dependent signals to regulate hepatic lipid metabolism. (2026)
• Loss of α-cell GRK2 modulates glucagon response and supports cardiac function. (2026)
• Postprandial Glucagon Metabolism in Healthy and Type 1 Diabetes. (2026)
• Dysregulated glucagon signaling contributes to hypoglycemia after vertical sleeve gastrectomy in mice. (2026)
• Association of fasting plasma glucagon with osteopenia/osteoporosis in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes. (2026)
• Incretin and Glucagon Signalling in MASLD and MASH: Integrating Metabolic Pathways With Disease Progression. (2026)
• eNAMPT induces alpha-cell mass expansion but impaired glucagon counter regulatory response. (2026)
• Prolonged Somatostatin Receptor 2 Antagonism Enhances Glucagon Response to Hypoglycemia in Male Diabetic Rats. (2026)
• In vivo dysregulation of insulin and glucagon secretion: Disturbed mitochonderial VDAC1 expression and localization in pancreatic β-cells convey global insulin secretory defects in diabetic GK rat. (2026)
• Partial restoration of counterregulatory circulating glucagon by dapagliflozin and low-dose glibenclamide in men with type 1 diabetes: in vitro studies and randomised clinical crossover trial. (2026)
• The bile acid-sensive ion channel (BASIC) is expressed in pancreatic α-cells and involved in glucagon secretion. (2026)
• Intra-Islet Paracrine Regulation of Glucagon Secretion During Hypoglycemia, Euglycemia, and Hyperglycemia. (2026)
• Stathmin-2 mediates paracrine hormone regulation of glucagon through lysosomal trafficking in αTC1-6 cells. (2026)
• Prostate T2-weighted spin-echo MRI with and without glucagon: a paired scan quality assessment. (2026)
• Association between glucagon and stroke in patients with type 2 diabetes. (2026)
• Modeling the effect of glucagon on endogenous glucose production in healthy individuals under meal-like conditions. (2025)
• Glucagon acutely stimulates hepatic gluconeogenesis. (2025)
• Glucagon increases plasma levels of cyclic AMP responses in mice and humans, and this may be independent of MASLD. (2025)
• Glucagon in Pediatric Metabolic Disorders: Pathophysiology and Therapeutic Perspectives. (2025)
• Glucagon, the Alpha Cell, and Potential Targets for Diabetes Treatment. (2025)
• Using glucagon receptor antagonism to evaluate the physiological effects of extrapancreatic glucagon in totally pancreatectomised individuals: a randomised controlled trial. (2025)
• Fasting glucagon as an independent risk indicator for CAD in patient with type 2 diabetes. (2025)
• Impaired Glucagon Suppression Accompanied by Liver Fat Accumulation Mediated Worse Blood Glucose Control in Patients With T2D. (2025)
• Prolonged glucagon exposure rewires lipid oxidation and drives diabetic kidney disease progression. (2025)
• Augmented glucagon-induced gluconeogenesis in primary hepatocytes from Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty rats. (2025)
• Engineering Glucagon via Molecular and Formulation Strategies: From Natural Hormone to Effective and Stable Therapeutics. (2025)
• Metabolic and Paracrine Heterogeneity of Pancreatic Glucagon-Secreting α-Cells. (2025)
• Splanchnic and Leg Glucagon Metabolism in Healthy Individuals and Those With Type 1 Diabetes: First-in-Human Study Using [13C9,15N1]Glucagon. (2025)
• Metabolic Effects of Glucagon Stimulations in Type 1 Diabetes and Healthy Controls. (2025)
• Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide and Glucagon After Weight Loss Induced by Diet or Bariatric Surgery. (2025)
• Contractile Effects of Glucagon in Mouse Cardiac Preparations. (2025)
• Nonlinear Mixed Effects Modeling of Glucagon Kinetics Assessed Using [<sup>13</sup>C<sup>15</sup>N]-Glucagon in Individuals With and Without Type 1 Diabetes. (2025)
• Intra-islet α-cell Gs signaling promotes glucagon release. (2024)
• Glucagon Receptor Signaling and Glucagon Resistance (2019)
• Glucagon Receptor Signaling and Lipid Metabolism (2019)
• Insulin Secretion Depends on Intra-islet Glucagon Signaling (2018)
• Structure of the glucagon receptor in complex with a glucagon analogue (2018)
• The New Biology and Pharmacology of Glucagon (2017)
• cAMP signalling in insulin and glucagon secretion (2017)
• Insulin Resistance Is Accompanied by Increased Fasting Glucagon and Delayed Glucagon Suppression in Individuals With Normal and Impaired Glucose Regulation (2016)
• Inhibition of the glucose transporter SGLT2 with dapagliflozin in pancreatic alpha cells triggers glucagon secretion (2015)
• Structure of the human glucagon class B G-protein-coupled receptor (2013)
• Biguanides suppress hepatic glucagon signalling by decreasing production of cyclic AMP (2013)
• Physiologic action of glucagon on liver glucose metabolism (2011)
• Minireview: Glucagon in the Pathogenesis of Hypoglycemia and Hyperglycemia in Diabetes (2011)
• The metabolic actions of glucagon revisited (2010)
• Insulin Signaling in α Cells Modulates Glucagon Secretion In Vivo (2009)
• The Glucagon Receptor Is Required for the Adaptive Metabolic Response to Fasting (2008)
• Physiology of the pancreatic α-cell and glucagon secretion: role in glucose homeostasis and diabetes (2008)
• Pancreatic signals controlling food intake; insulin, glucagon and amylin (2006)
• Human adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into insulin, somatostatin, and glucagon expressing cells (2006)
• Inhibition of Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Reduces Glycemia, Sustains Insulin Levels, and Reduces Glucagon Levels in Type 2 Diabetes (2004)
• International Union of Pharmacology. XXXV. The Glucagon Receptor Family (2003)
• Glucagon and regulation of glucose metabolism (2003)
• Lower blood glucose, hyperglucagonemia, and pancreatic α cell hyperplasia in glucagon receptor knockout mice (2003)
• Islet β-cell secretion determines glucagon release from neighbouring α-cells (2003)
• Effects of a novel glucagon receptor antagonist (Bay 27-9955) on glucagon-stimulated glucose production in humans (2001)
• Adult insulin- and glucagon-producing cells differentiate from two independent cell lineages (2000)
• The Origin and Function of the Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide (PACAP)/Glucagon Superfamily* (2000)
• Lack of Suppression of Glucagon Contributes to Postprandial Hyperglycemia in Subjects with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus1 (2000)
• Pax6 is required for differentiation of glucagon-producing α-cells in mouse pancreas (1997)
• Expression cloning and signaling properties of the rat glucagon receptor (1993)
• Glucose-inhibition of glucagon secretion involves activation of GABAA-receptor chloride channels (1989)
• Glucagon gene expression in vertebrate brain. (1988)
• Activation of two signal-transduction systems in hepatocytes by glucagon (1986)
• Glucagon physiology and pathophysiology in the light of new advances (1985)
• Insulin within islets is a physiologic glucagon release inhibitor. (1984)
• Conformation of glucagon in a lipid-water interphase by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (1983)
• Hamster preproglucagon contains the sequence of glucagon and two related peptides (1983)
• Glucagon and the a Cell (1981)
• Role of Glucagon, Catecholamines, and Growth Hormone in Human Glucose Counterregulation (1979)
• C-peptide Response to Glucagon: A Test for the Residual β-cell Function in Diabetes Mellitus (1977)
• Physiology and pathophysiology of glucagon (1976)
• Regulation of Pancreatic Insulin and Glucagon Secretion (1976)
• INSULIN, GLUCAGON, AMINOACID IMBALANCE, AND HEPATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY (1976)
• EFFECTS OF INSULIN, GLUCAGON, AND INSULIN/GLUCAGON INFUSIONS ON LIVER MORPHOLOGY AND CELL DIVISION AFTER COMPLETE PORTACAVAL SHUNT IN DOGS (1976)
• Glucagon: Role in the Hyperglycemia of Diabetes Mellitus (1975)
• X-ray analysis of glucagon and its relationship to receptor binding (1975)
• Glucagon and plasma catecholamine responses to graded and prolonged exercise in man (1975)
• THE ESSENTIAL ROLE OF GLUCAGON IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF DIABETES MELLITUS (1975)
• Regulation of hepatic regeneration in rats by synergistic action of insulin and glucagon. (1975)
• Lack of Glucagon Response to Hypoglycemia in Diabetes: Evidence for an Intrinsic Pancreatic Alpha Cell Defect (1973)
• Isolation from Porcine‐Intestinal Wall of a Vasoactive Octacosapeptide Related to Secretin and to Glucagon (1972)
• Glucagon-stimulating activity of 20 amino acids in dogs (1972)
• The effect of experimental insulin deficiency on glucagon secretion (1971)
• Glucagon and the Insulin:Glucagon Ratio in Diabetes and Other Catabolic Illnesses (1971)
• Effect of hypothalamic stimulation on plasma glucose, insulin, and glucagon levels (1971)
• The Glucagon-sensitive Adenyl Cyclase System in Plasma Membranes of Rat Liver (1971)
• Radioimmunological determination of pancreatic and gut glucagon in plasma (1971)
• The Glucagon-sensitive Adenyl Cyclase System in Plasma Membranes of Rat Liver (1971)
• The Glucagon-sensitive Adenyl Cyclase System in Plasma Membranes of Rat Liver (1971)
• The Glucagon-sensitive Adenyl Cyclase System in Plasma Membranes of Rat Liver (1971)
• The Glucagon-sensitive Adenyl Cyclase System in Plasma Membranes of Rat Liver (1971)
• Glucagon Physiology and Pathophysiology (1971)
• Glucagon levels and metabolic effects in fasting man (1970)
• Pancreatic Glucagon Secretion in Normal and Diabetic Subjects (1969)
• Glucagon (1968)
• Cardiac Actions of Glucagon (1968)
• Wick Chromatography for Rapid and Reliable Immunoassay of Insulin, Glucagon and Growth Hormone (1968)
• Cardiovascular Effects of Glucagon in Man (1968)
• INFLUENCE OF GLUCAGON, AN INDUCER OF CELLULAR AUTOPHAGY, ON SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF RAT LIVER LYSOSOMES (1967)
• The Effects of Secretin, Pancreozymin, and Gastrin on Insulin and Glucagon Secretion in Anesthetized Dogs * (1967)
• PARTICIPATION OF LYSOSOMES IN CELLULAR AUTOPHAGY INDUCED IN RAT LIVER BY GLUCAGON (1967)
• Interrelationship of Glucagon, Insulin and Glucose: The Insulinogenic Effect of Glucagon (1966)
• A Glucagon-Secreting Alpha-Cell Carcinoma of the Pancreas (1966)
• PROMOTION OF INSULIN SECRETION BY GLUCAGON (1965)
• THE EFFECTS OF TOTAL STARVATION UPON THE LEVELS OF CIRCULATING GLUCAGON AND INSULIN IN MAN* (1963)
• GLUCAGON ANTIBODIES AND AN IMMUNOASSAY FOR GLUCAGON* (1961)
• Effect of Glucagon on the Metabolism of Adipose Tissue (1961)
• STUDIES ON THE PHARMACOLOGY OF GLUCAGON (1960)
• Glucagon Antibodies and Their Use for Immunoassay for Glucagon. (1959)
• THE RELATIONSHIP OF EPINEPHRINE AND GLUCAGON TO LIVER PHOSPHORYLASE (1957)
• THE RELATIONSHIP OF EPINEPHRINE AND GLUCAGON TO LIVER PHOSPHORYLASE (1956)
• THE RELATIONSHIP OF EPINEPHRINE AND GLUCAGON TO LIVER PHOSPHORYLASE (1956)
• THE RELATIONSHIP OF EPINEPHRINE AND GLUCAGON TO LIVER PHOSPHORYLASE (1956)
• PURIFICATION AND CRYSTALLIZATION OF GLUCAGON (1955)

Regulatory status as of this version

• United States — FDA: approved — GlucaGen (glucagon), specifically -- not glucagon as a class: indicated for the treatment of severe hypoglycemia in pediatric and adult patients with diabetes, and separately indicated as a diagnostic aid during radiologic examinations to temporarily inhibit gastrointestinal tract movement in adult patients only.
• European Union — EMA: approved — Baqsimi (glucagon nasal powder) is centrally authorized for the treatment of severe hypoglycaemia in adults, adolescents, and children aged 4 years and over with diabetes mellitus.